Automate memory-barriers.txt; provide Linux-kernel memory model
There is some reason to believe that Documentation/memory-barriers.txt
could use some help, and a major purpose of this patch is to provide
that help in the form of a design-time tool that can produce all valid
executions of a small fragment of concurrent Linux-kernel code, which is
called a "litmus test". This tool's functionality is roughly similar to
a full state-space search. Please note that this is a design-time tool,
not useful for regression testing. However, we hope that the underlying
Linux-kernel memory model will be incorporated into other tools capable
of analyzing large bodies of code for regression-testing purposes.
The main tool is herd7, together with the linux-kernel.bell,
linux-kernel.cat, linux-kernel.cfg, linux-kernel.def, and lock.cat files
added by this patch. The herd7 executable takes the other files as input,
and all of these files collectively define the Linux-kernel memory memory
model. A brief description of each of these other files is provided
in the README file. Although this tool does have its limitations,
which are documented in the README file, it does improve on the version
reported on in the LWN series (https://lwn.net/Articles/718628/ and
https://lwn.net/Articles/720550/) by supporting locking and arithmetic,
including a much wider variety of read-modify-write atomic operations.
Please note that herd7 is not part of this submission, but is freely
available from http://diy.inria.fr/sources/index.html (and via "git"
at https://github.com/herd/herdtools7).
A second tool is klitmus7, which converts litmus tests to loadable
kernel modules for direct testing. As with herd7, the klitmus7
code is freely available from http://diy.inria.fr/sources/index.html
(and via "git" at https://github.com/herd/herdtools7).
Of course, litmus tests are not always the best way to fully understand a
memory model, so this patch also includes Documentation/explanation.txt,
which describes the memory model in detail. In addition,
Documentation/recipes.txt provides example known-good and known-bad use
cases for those who prefer working by example.
This patch also includes a few sample litmus tests, and a great many
more litmus tests are available at https://github.com/paulmckrcu/litmus.
This patch was the result of a most excellent collaboration founded
by Jade Alglave and also including Alan Stern, Andrea Parri, and Luc
Maranget. For more details on the history of this collaboration, please
refer to the Linux-kernel memory model presentations at 2016 LinuxCon EU,
2016 Kernel Summit, 2016 Linux Plumbers Conference, 2017 linux.conf.au,
or 2017 Linux Plumbers Conference microconference. However, one aspect
of the history does bear repeating due to weak copyright tracking earlier
in this project, which extends back to early 2015. This weakness came
to light in late 2017 after an LKMM presentation by Paul in which an
audience member noted the similarity of some LKMM code to code in early
published papers. This prompted a copyright review.
From Alan Stern:
To say that the model was mine is not entirely accurate.
Pieces of it (especially the Scpv and Atomic axioms) were taken
directly from Jade's models. And of course the Happens-before
and Propagation relations and axioms were heavily based on
Jade and Luc's work, even though they weren't identical to the
earlier versions. Only the RCU portion was completely original.
. . .
One can make a much better case that I wrote the bulk of lock.cat.
However, it was inspired by Luc's earlier version (and still
shares some elements in common), and of course it benefited from
feedback and testing from all members of our group.
The model prior to Alan's was Luc Maranget's. From Luc:
I totally agree on Alan Stern's account of the linux kernel model
genesis. I thank him for his acknowledgments of my participation
to previous model drafts. I'd like to complete Alan Stern's
statement: any bell cat code I have written has its roots in
discussions with Jade Alglave and Paul McKenney. Moreover I
have borrowed cat and bell code written by Jade Alglave freely.
This copyright review therefore resulted in late adds to the copyright
statements of several files.
Discussion of v1 has raised several issues, which we do not believe should
block acceptance given that this level of change will be ongoing, just
as it has been with memory-barriers.txt:
o Under what conditions should ordering provided by pure locking
be seen by CPUs not holding the relevant lock(s)? In particular,
should the message-passing pattern be forbidden?
o Should examples involving C11 release sequences be forbidden?
Note that this C11 is still a moving target for this issue:
http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2017/p0735r0.html
o Some details of the handling of internal dependencies for atomic
read-modify-write atomic operations are still subject to debate.
o Changes recently accepted into mainline greatly reduce the need
to handle DEC Alpha as a special case. These changes add an
smp_read_barrier_depends() to READ_ONCE(), thus causing Alpha
to respect ordering of dependent reads. If these changes stick,
the memory model can be simplified accordingly.
o Will changes be required to accommodate RISC-V?
Differences from v1:
(http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20171113184031.GA26302@linux.vnet.ibm.com)
o Add SPDX notations to .bell and .cat files, replacing
textual license statements.
o Add reference to upcoming ASPLOS paper to .bell and .cat files.
o Updated identifier names in .bell and .cat files to match those
used in the ASPLOS paper.
o Updates to READMEs and other documentation based on review
feedback.
o Added a memory-ordering cheatsheet.
o Update sigs to new Co-Developed-by and add acks and
reviewed-bys.
o Simplify rules detecting nested RCU read-side critical sections.
o Update copyright statements as noted above.
Co-Developed-by: Alan Stern <stern@rowland.harvard.edu>
Co-Developed-by: Andrea Parri <parri.andrea@gmail.com>
Co-Developed-by: Jade Alglave <j.alglave@ucl.ac.uk>
Co-Developed-by: Luc Maranget <luc.maranget@inria.fr>
Co-Developed-by: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: Alan Stern <stern@rowland.harvard.edu>
Signed-off-by: Andrea Parri <parri.andrea@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: Jade Alglave <j.alglave@ucl.ac.uk>
Signed-off-by: Luc Maranget <luc.maranget@inria.fr>
Signed-off-by: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Reviewed-by: Boqun Feng <boqun.feng@gmail.com>
Acked-by: Will Deacon <will.deacon@arm.com>
Acked-by: Peter Zijlstra <peterz@infradead.org>
Acked-by: Nicholas Piggin <npiggin@gmail.com>
Acked-by: David Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Acked-by: "Reshetova, Elena" <elena.reshetova@intel.com>
Acked-by: Michal Hocko <mhocko@suse.com>
Acked-by: Akira Yokosawa <akiyks@gmail.com>
Cc: <linux-arch@vger.kernel.org>
2018-01-19 11:58:55 +08:00
|
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This document provides background reading for memory models and related
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|
tools. These documents are aimed at kernel hackers who are interested
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in memory models.
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Hardware manuals and models
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|
===========================
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o SPARC International Inc. (Ed.). 1994. "The SPARC Architecture
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|
Reference Manual Version 9". SPARC International Inc.
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|
|
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o Compaq Computer Corporation (Ed.). 2002. "Alpha Architecture
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|
Reference Manual". Compaq Computer Corporation.
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o Intel Corporation (Ed.). 2002. "A Formal Specification of Intel
|
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|
|
Itanium Processor Family Memory Ordering". Intel Corporation.
|
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|
|
|
|
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|
o Intel Corporation (Ed.). 2002. "Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures
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|
Software Developer’s Manual". Intel Corporation.
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o Peter Sewell, Susmit Sarkar, Scott Owens, Francesco Zappa Nardelli,
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and Magnus O. Myreen. 2010. "x86-TSO: A Rigorous and Usable
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Programmer's Model for x86 Multiprocessors". Commun. ACM 53, 7
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(July, 2010), 89-97. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1785414.1785443
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o IBM Corporation (Ed.). 2009. "Power ISA Version 2.06". IBM
|
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|
Corporation.
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o ARM Ltd. (Ed.). 2009. "ARM Barrier Litmus Tests and Cookbook".
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ARM Ltd.
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o Susmit Sarkar, Peter Sewell, Jade Alglave, Luc Maranget, and
|
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Derek Williams. 2011. "Understanding POWER Multiprocessors". In
|
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Proceedings of the 32Nd ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming
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Language Design and Implementation (PLDI ’11). ACM, New York,
|
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NY, USA, 175–186.
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o Susmit Sarkar, Kayvan Memarian, Scott Owens, Mark Batty,
|
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Peter Sewell, Luc Maranget, Jade Alglave, and Derek Williams.
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2012. "Synchronising C/C++ and POWER". In Proceedings of the 33rd
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ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and
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Implementation (PLDI '12). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 311-322.
|
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o ARM Ltd. (Ed.). 2014. "ARM Architecture Reference Manual (ARMv8,
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for ARMv8-A architecture profile)". ARM Ltd.
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o Imagination Technologies, LTD. 2015. "MIPS(R) Architecture
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For Programmers, Volume II-A: The MIPS64(R) Instruction,
|
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|
|
Set Reference Manual". Imagination Technologies,
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LTD. https://imgtec.com/?do-download=4302.
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o Shaked Flur, Kathryn E. Gray, Christopher Pulte, Susmit
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Sarkar, Ali Sezgin, Luc Maranget, Will Deacon, and Peter
|
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|
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Sewell. 2016. "Modelling the ARMv8 Architecture, Operationally:
|
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|
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Concurrency and ISA". In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual ACM
|
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SIGPLAN-SIGACT Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages
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(POPL ’16). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 608–621.
|
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o Shaked Flur, Susmit Sarkar, Christopher Pulte, Kyndylan Nienhuis,
|
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Luc Maranget, Kathryn E. Gray, Ali Sezgin, Mark Batty, and Peter
|
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Sewell. 2017. "Mixed-size Concurrency: ARM, POWER, C/C++11,
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and SC". In Proceedings of the 44th ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on
|
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Principles of Programming Languages (POPL 2017). ACM, New York,
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NY, USA, 429–442.
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2018-05-15 07:33:57 +08:00
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o Christopher Pulte, Shaked Flur, Will Deacon, Jon French,
|
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Susmit Sarkar, and Peter Sewell. 2018. "Simplifying ARM concurrency:
|
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multicopy-atomic axiomatic and operational models for ARMv8". In
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Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages, Volume 2, Issue
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POPL, Article No. 19. ACM, New York, NY, USA.
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Automate memory-barriers.txt; provide Linux-kernel memory model
There is some reason to believe that Documentation/memory-barriers.txt
could use some help, and a major purpose of this patch is to provide
that help in the form of a design-time tool that can produce all valid
executions of a small fragment of concurrent Linux-kernel code, which is
called a "litmus test". This tool's functionality is roughly similar to
a full state-space search. Please note that this is a design-time tool,
not useful for regression testing. However, we hope that the underlying
Linux-kernel memory model will be incorporated into other tools capable
of analyzing large bodies of code for regression-testing purposes.
The main tool is herd7, together with the linux-kernel.bell,
linux-kernel.cat, linux-kernel.cfg, linux-kernel.def, and lock.cat files
added by this patch. The herd7 executable takes the other files as input,
and all of these files collectively define the Linux-kernel memory memory
model. A brief description of each of these other files is provided
in the README file. Although this tool does have its limitations,
which are documented in the README file, it does improve on the version
reported on in the LWN series (https://lwn.net/Articles/718628/ and
https://lwn.net/Articles/720550/) by supporting locking and arithmetic,
including a much wider variety of read-modify-write atomic operations.
Please note that herd7 is not part of this submission, but is freely
available from http://diy.inria.fr/sources/index.html (and via "git"
at https://github.com/herd/herdtools7).
A second tool is klitmus7, which converts litmus tests to loadable
kernel modules for direct testing. As with herd7, the klitmus7
code is freely available from http://diy.inria.fr/sources/index.html
(and via "git" at https://github.com/herd/herdtools7).
Of course, litmus tests are not always the best way to fully understand a
memory model, so this patch also includes Documentation/explanation.txt,
which describes the memory model in detail. In addition,
Documentation/recipes.txt provides example known-good and known-bad use
cases for those who prefer working by example.
This patch also includes a few sample litmus tests, and a great many
more litmus tests are available at https://github.com/paulmckrcu/litmus.
This patch was the result of a most excellent collaboration founded
by Jade Alglave and also including Alan Stern, Andrea Parri, and Luc
Maranget. For more details on the history of this collaboration, please
refer to the Linux-kernel memory model presentations at 2016 LinuxCon EU,
2016 Kernel Summit, 2016 Linux Plumbers Conference, 2017 linux.conf.au,
or 2017 Linux Plumbers Conference microconference. However, one aspect
of the history does bear repeating due to weak copyright tracking earlier
in this project, which extends back to early 2015. This weakness came
to light in late 2017 after an LKMM presentation by Paul in which an
audience member noted the similarity of some LKMM code to code in early
published papers. This prompted a copyright review.
From Alan Stern:
To say that the model was mine is not entirely accurate.
Pieces of it (especially the Scpv and Atomic axioms) were taken
directly from Jade's models. And of course the Happens-before
and Propagation relations and axioms were heavily based on
Jade and Luc's work, even though they weren't identical to the
earlier versions. Only the RCU portion was completely original.
. . .
One can make a much better case that I wrote the bulk of lock.cat.
However, it was inspired by Luc's earlier version (and still
shares some elements in common), and of course it benefited from
feedback and testing from all members of our group.
The model prior to Alan's was Luc Maranget's. From Luc:
I totally agree on Alan Stern's account of the linux kernel model
genesis. I thank him for his acknowledgments of my participation
to previous model drafts. I'd like to complete Alan Stern's
statement: any bell cat code I have written has its roots in
discussions with Jade Alglave and Paul McKenney. Moreover I
have borrowed cat and bell code written by Jade Alglave freely.
This copyright review therefore resulted in late adds to the copyright
statements of several files.
Discussion of v1 has raised several issues, which we do not believe should
block acceptance given that this level of change will be ongoing, just
as it has been with memory-barriers.txt:
o Under what conditions should ordering provided by pure locking
be seen by CPUs not holding the relevant lock(s)? In particular,
should the message-passing pattern be forbidden?
o Should examples involving C11 release sequences be forbidden?
Note that this C11 is still a moving target for this issue:
http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2017/p0735r0.html
o Some details of the handling of internal dependencies for atomic
read-modify-write atomic operations are still subject to debate.
o Changes recently accepted into mainline greatly reduce the need
to handle DEC Alpha as a special case. These changes add an
smp_read_barrier_depends() to READ_ONCE(), thus causing Alpha
to respect ordering of dependent reads. If these changes stick,
the memory model can be simplified accordingly.
o Will changes be required to accommodate RISC-V?
Differences from v1:
(http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20171113184031.GA26302@linux.vnet.ibm.com)
o Add SPDX notations to .bell and .cat files, replacing
textual license statements.
o Add reference to upcoming ASPLOS paper to .bell and .cat files.
o Updated identifier names in .bell and .cat files to match those
used in the ASPLOS paper.
o Updates to READMEs and other documentation based on review
feedback.
o Added a memory-ordering cheatsheet.
o Update sigs to new Co-Developed-by and add acks and
reviewed-bys.
o Simplify rules detecting nested RCU read-side critical sections.
o Update copyright statements as noted above.
Co-Developed-by: Alan Stern <stern@rowland.harvard.edu>
Co-Developed-by: Andrea Parri <parri.andrea@gmail.com>
Co-Developed-by: Jade Alglave <j.alglave@ucl.ac.uk>
Co-Developed-by: Luc Maranget <luc.maranget@inria.fr>
Co-Developed-by: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: Alan Stern <stern@rowland.harvard.edu>
Signed-off-by: Andrea Parri <parri.andrea@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: Jade Alglave <j.alglave@ucl.ac.uk>
Signed-off-by: Luc Maranget <luc.maranget@inria.fr>
Signed-off-by: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Reviewed-by: Boqun Feng <boqun.feng@gmail.com>
Acked-by: Will Deacon <will.deacon@arm.com>
Acked-by: Peter Zijlstra <peterz@infradead.org>
Acked-by: Nicholas Piggin <npiggin@gmail.com>
Acked-by: David Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Acked-by: "Reshetova, Elena" <elena.reshetova@intel.com>
Acked-by: Michal Hocko <mhocko@suse.com>
Acked-by: Akira Yokosawa <akiyks@gmail.com>
Cc: <linux-arch@vger.kernel.org>
2018-01-19 11:58:55 +08:00
|
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Linux-kernel memory model
|
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|
=========================
|
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|
2018-05-15 07:33:56 +08:00
|
|
|
|
o Jade Alglave, Luc Maranget, Paul E. McKenney, Andrea Parri, and
|
|
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|
|
|
Alan Stern. 2018. "Frightening small children and disconcerting
|
|
|
|
|
|
grown-ups: Concurrency in the Linux kernel". In Proceedings of
|
|
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|
|
|
the 23rd International Conference on Architectural Support for
|
|
|
|
|
|
Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS 2018). ACM,
|
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|
New York, NY, USA, 405-418. Webpage: http://diy.inria.fr/linux/.
|
Automate memory-barriers.txt; provide Linux-kernel memory model
There is some reason to believe that Documentation/memory-barriers.txt
could use some help, and a major purpose of this patch is to provide
that help in the form of a design-time tool that can produce all valid
executions of a small fragment of concurrent Linux-kernel code, which is
called a "litmus test". This tool's functionality is roughly similar to
a full state-space search. Please note that this is a design-time tool,
not useful for regression testing. However, we hope that the underlying
Linux-kernel memory model will be incorporated into other tools capable
of analyzing large bodies of code for regression-testing purposes.
The main tool is herd7, together with the linux-kernel.bell,
linux-kernel.cat, linux-kernel.cfg, linux-kernel.def, and lock.cat files
added by this patch. The herd7 executable takes the other files as input,
and all of these files collectively define the Linux-kernel memory memory
model. A brief description of each of these other files is provided
in the README file. Although this tool does have its limitations,
which are documented in the README file, it does improve on the version
reported on in the LWN series (https://lwn.net/Articles/718628/ and
https://lwn.net/Articles/720550/) by supporting locking and arithmetic,
including a much wider variety of read-modify-write atomic operations.
Please note that herd7 is not part of this submission, but is freely
available from http://diy.inria.fr/sources/index.html (and via "git"
at https://github.com/herd/herdtools7).
A second tool is klitmus7, which converts litmus tests to loadable
kernel modules for direct testing. As with herd7, the klitmus7
code is freely available from http://diy.inria.fr/sources/index.html
(and via "git" at https://github.com/herd/herdtools7).
Of course, litmus tests are not always the best way to fully understand a
memory model, so this patch also includes Documentation/explanation.txt,
which describes the memory model in detail. In addition,
Documentation/recipes.txt provides example known-good and known-bad use
cases for those who prefer working by example.
This patch also includes a few sample litmus tests, and a great many
more litmus tests are available at https://github.com/paulmckrcu/litmus.
This patch was the result of a most excellent collaboration founded
by Jade Alglave and also including Alan Stern, Andrea Parri, and Luc
Maranget. For more details on the history of this collaboration, please
refer to the Linux-kernel memory model presentations at 2016 LinuxCon EU,
2016 Kernel Summit, 2016 Linux Plumbers Conference, 2017 linux.conf.au,
or 2017 Linux Plumbers Conference microconference. However, one aspect
of the history does bear repeating due to weak copyright tracking earlier
in this project, which extends back to early 2015. This weakness came
to light in late 2017 after an LKMM presentation by Paul in which an
audience member noted the similarity of some LKMM code to code in early
published papers. This prompted a copyright review.
From Alan Stern:
To say that the model was mine is not entirely accurate.
Pieces of it (especially the Scpv and Atomic axioms) were taken
directly from Jade's models. And of course the Happens-before
and Propagation relations and axioms were heavily based on
Jade and Luc's work, even though they weren't identical to the
earlier versions. Only the RCU portion was completely original.
. . .
One can make a much better case that I wrote the bulk of lock.cat.
However, it was inspired by Luc's earlier version (and still
shares some elements in common), and of course it benefited from
feedback and testing from all members of our group.
The model prior to Alan's was Luc Maranget's. From Luc:
I totally agree on Alan Stern's account of the linux kernel model
genesis. I thank him for his acknowledgments of my participation
to previous model drafts. I'd like to complete Alan Stern's
statement: any bell cat code I have written has its roots in
discussions with Jade Alglave and Paul McKenney. Moreover I
have borrowed cat and bell code written by Jade Alglave freely.
This copyright review therefore resulted in late adds to the copyright
statements of several files.
Discussion of v1 has raised several issues, which we do not believe should
block acceptance given that this level of change will be ongoing, just
as it has been with memory-barriers.txt:
o Under what conditions should ordering provided by pure locking
be seen by CPUs not holding the relevant lock(s)? In particular,
should the message-passing pattern be forbidden?
o Should examples involving C11 release sequences be forbidden?
Note that this C11 is still a moving target for this issue:
http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2017/p0735r0.html
o Some details of the handling of internal dependencies for atomic
read-modify-write atomic operations are still subject to debate.
o Changes recently accepted into mainline greatly reduce the need
to handle DEC Alpha as a special case. These changes add an
smp_read_barrier_depends() to READ_ONCE(), thus causing Alpha
to respect ordering of dependent reads. If these changes stick,
the memory model can be simplified accordingly.
o Will changes be required to accommodate RISC-V?
Differences from v1:
(http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20171113184031.GA26302@linux.vnet.ibm.com)
o Add SPDX notations to .bell and .cat files, replacing
textual license statements.
o Add reference to upcoming ASPLOS paper to .bell and .cat files.
o Updated identifier names in .bell and .cat files to match those
used in the ASPLOS paper.
o Updates to READMEs and other documentation based on review
feedback.
o Added a memory-ordering cheatsheet.
o Update sigs to new Co-Developed-by and add acks and
reviewed-bys.
o Simplify rules detecting nested RCU read-side critical sections.
o Update copyright statements as noted above.
Co-Developed-by: Alan Stern <stern@rowland.harvard.edu>
Co-Developed-by: Andrea Parri <parri.andrea@gmail.com>
Co-Developed-by: Jade Alglave <j.alglave@ucl.ac.uk>
Co-Developed-by: Luc Maranget <luc.maranget@inria.fr>
Co-Developed-by: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: Alan Stern <stern@rowland.harvard.edu>
Signed-off-by: Andrea Parri <parri.andrea@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: Jade Alglave <j.alglave@ucl.ac.uk>
Signed-off-by: Luc Maranget <luc.maranget@inria.fr>
Signed-off-by: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Reviewed-by: Boqun Feng <boqun.feng@gmail.com>
Acked-by: Will Deacon <will.deacon@arm.com>
Acked-by: Peter Zijlstra <peterz@infradead.org>
Acked-by: Nicholas Piggin <npiggin@gmail.com>
Acked-by: David Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Acked-by: "Reshetova, Elena" <elena.reshetova@intel.com>
Acked-by: Michal Hocko <mhocko@suse.com>
Acked-by: Akira Yokosawa <akiyks@gmail.com>
Cc: <linux-arch@vger.kernel.org>
2018-01-19 11:58:55 +08:00
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o Jade Alglave, Luc Maranget, Paul E. McKenney, Andrea Parri, and
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Alan Stern. 2017. "A formal kernel memory-ordering model (part 1)"
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Linux Weekly News. https://lwn.net/Articles/718628/
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o Jade Alglave, Luc Maranget, Paul E. McKenney, Andrea Parri, and
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Alan Stern. 2017. "A formal kernel memory-ordering model (part 2)"
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Linux Weekly News. https://lwn.net/Articles/720550/
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Memory-model tooling
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====================
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o Daniel Jackson. 2002. "Alloy: A Lightweight Object Modelling
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Notation". ACM Trans. Softw. Eng. Methodol. 11, 2 (April 2002),
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256–290. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/505145.505149
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o Jade Alglave, Luc Maranget, and Michael Tautschnig. 2014. "Herding
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Cats: Modelling, Simulation, Testing, and Data Mining for Weak
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Memory". ACM Trans. Program. Lang. Syst. 36, 2, Article 7 (July
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2014), 7:1–7:74 pages.
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o Jade Alglave, Patrick Cousot, and Luc Maranget. 2016. "Syntax and
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semantics of the weak consistency model specification language
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cat". CoRR abs/1608.07531 (2016). http://arxiv.org/abs/1608.07531
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Memory-model comparisons
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========================
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o Paul E. McKenney, Ulrich Weigand, Andrea Parri, and Boqun
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Feng. 2016. "Linux-Kernel Memory Model". (6 June 2016).
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http://open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG21/docs/papers/2016/p0124r2.html.
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